Theme 2: Critical media studies (before)

Dialectic of Enlightenment

• What is "Enlightenment"?

Enlightenment refers to an intellectual, philosophical revolution which took place in Western Europe from the mid 17th Century to the late 18th Century. It "swept away the medieval world-view" (cf. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy) and especially enforced reasoned thinking. 
Horkheimer and Adorno initially define the Enlightenment as the "advance of thought" which has "always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters" (Dialectic of Enlightenment, p. 1). It is entirely founded on logic and reason and everything that is not logically explainable cannot be real and must be an illusion. 

• What is "Dialectic"?

Dialectic describes the discourse of at least two people who have different points of view on a subject at hand and who want to come to a true conclusion through discussion. Especially Plato in his texts with Socrates (such as Theaetetus) increased the use of dialectic as a method (cf. The University of Chicago). As opposed to a regular discussion or argument, it is important for the dialectic that participants simply discuss with objective feelings from their perspective. It is basically an artificially constructed discussion just to consider different aspects of an issue in the search of a true solution. 

• What is "Nominalism" and why is it an important concept in the text?

Nominalism derives from the latin nomen (meaning "name") and is the philosophical theory that universals come post res, i.e. human-constructed names and descriptions come after the actually existing things or objects (cf. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Universals are rather communicational tools and they artificially group real-life objects or phenomena by putting them in relation with each other.

My interpretation of the relevance of nominalism in this context is that "art" or "culture" are constructed names that once described something of value and quality. Horkheimer and Adorno, however, argue that art and culture have lost their meaning and relevance and only their universal (i.e. what we call them) still exists. 

• What is the meaning and function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?

Myths were used by humans to explain the seemingly unexplainable, they invented stories for natural phenomena or other occurrences people did not understand. Enlightenment as a counter-act works against myth to promote logic and reason. While trying this, Horkheimer and Adorno argue, Enlightenment "entangles itself more deeply in mythology" (Dialectic of Enlightenment, p. 8). The Enlightenment itself becomes a myth in its attempt to decide over and for people - this is why the two authors think that the movement has failed to achieve what it was aiming for.

The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity

• In the beginning of the essay, Benjamin talks about the relation between "superstructure" and "substructure" in the capitalist order of production. What do the concepts "superstructure" and "substructure" mean in this context and what is the point of analyzing cultural production from a Marxist perspective?

Karl Marx framed the concept of a superstructure and a substructure to demonstrate how society works. The substructure embodies the economic base of a society which includes its workers and the means of production. This determines the superstructure which contains the rather abstract concepts of a society, such as its ideology, politics and culture (cf. York University). These Marxist concepts are very relevant in Benjamin's discussion of the role of art and art works (part of the superstructure) in relation to their historical context and their means of production (part of the substructure). 

• Does culture have revolutionary potentials (according to Benjamin)? If so, describe these potentials. Does Benjamin's perspective differ from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer in this regard?

Walter Benjamin believes that culture can revolutionise society. Especially the availability of culture or art, due to mechanical reproduction "emancipates the work of art from its parasitical dependence on ritual" (The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, IV) and allows for more people to be educated through art. However, Benjamin critically observes how contemporary culture does not exploit its potential and rather follows monetary incentives than educational or revolutionary ones - one exception he sees here is Dadaism which creates art for art's sake. Here, Benjamin comes closer to Horkheimer and Adorno's argumentation that contemporary culture is merely driven by entertainment which promises revenue and that it denies its original purpose ("the liquidation of of the traditional value of the cultural heritage", The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, II). Both publications also agree on the fascist context limiting art and culture and abusing it for wrong reasons. 

• Benjamin discusses how people perceive the world through the senses and argues that this perception can be both naturally and historically determined. What does this mean? Give some examples of historically determined perception (from Benjamin's essay and/or other contexts).

We perceive the world within the means of our time - Benjamin talks about this especially in relation to art. One example he gives is the introduction of photography and how it allowed humans to perceive every small movement of the human body while walking, for example, through slow motion (cf. The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, XIII). Because we can display reality in a different way, or perception of it changes, as well. Another example is the change from stage performances to films because the step-by-step production of a film, as well as the camera capturing the storyline, distort the reality of the events happening and our perception of it. 

• What does Benjamin mean by the term "aura"? Are there different kinds of aura in natural objects compared to art objects?

The aura, according to Benjamin, is a special abstract spirit connected to objects in the context of their "here and now" and their particular uniqueness. Art works, for example, have a special aura which is always influenced by their history, too - their change of ownership and possible physical sufferings become part of their individual aura. As opposed to natural objects, art objects can lose their aura in the age of mechanical reproduction. The mass re-production of art basically sacrifices the aura for mass-availability for society as a whole and not only individuals.